The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines gender as

…the characteristics of women, men, girls, and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl, or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a societal construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time (WHO, 2022, n.p.)^[1]

Although one could argue that ‘gender’ is more diverse than a simple binary split between ‘male’ and ‘female’ (Dembroff, 2020^[2]; Joel & Vikhanski, 2019^[3]; Browning, 2017^[4]) and that ‘gender’ can not be explored without taking into account other factors such as race, culture, social class etc (Hill Collins, 1999^[5]; Baca Zinn & Thornton Dill, 1996^[6]; Hooks, 1989^[7]); for the purpose of simplicity in this document, the word ‘gender’ is being used to mean the behaviours, attributes and traits which society stereotypically dictates are indicative of being either male or female. Thus, the term ‘gender box’ has been used to visualise how society constrains people to specific ‘male’ or ‘female’ boxes – with expectations of how one should, or should not, behave according to whichever ‘box’ they have been put into.

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^[1] World Health Organisation (2022). https://www.qho.int/health-topics/gender 

^[2] Dembroff, R. (2020). Beyond Binary: Genderqueer as Critical Gender Kind. Philosopher’s  Imprint, 20, 1–23. https:www.philosophersimprint.org/020009 

^[3] Joel, D., & Vikhanski, L. (2019). Gender mosaic: Beyond the myth of the male and female brain. Hachette Book Group. 

^[4] Browning, F. (2017). The fate of gender. Nature, nurture and the human future. Bloomsbury Publication. 

^[5] Hill Collins, P. (1999). Moving beyond gender: Intersectionality and scientific knowledge. In M. F. Ferree (Eds.), Revisioning gender (pp. 261-284).: Sage. 

^[6] Baca Zinn, M., & Thornton Dill, B. (1996). Theorizing difference from multiracial feminism. Feminist Studies, (22), 321-333. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178416 

^[7] Hooks, B. (1989). Talking back: thinking feminist, thinking black. South End. 

Studies have shown that children from a very young age, are often bombarded with messages about how ‘boys’ and ‘girls’ should behave – usually that males should be strong and brave, and girls should be pretty and weak (Ofcom, 2020^[1]; Joel & Vikhanski, 2019^[2]; Wong et al., 2017^[3]). Often the perpetuation of such gender stereotypes is unintentional, as it simply reflects societal beliefs. For example, it could be through the ways in which boys and girls are treated differently by the adults around them – the expectations these adults have, the ways in which the adults interact differently with boys and girls, or with the activities they expect the children to participate in (Eccles & Fredericks, 2005^[4]; Gonzales & Keostner, 2005^[5]; Lindsey & Mize, 2000^[6]).

Some studies have shown that gender stereotypes can be perpetuated in far more subtle ways, for example, the names given to baby boys and baby girls (Lieberson & Bell, 1992^[7]); the ways in which the actual birth of a baby boy or baby girl is announced (Rubin, Provenzano & Luria, 1974^[8]);  and the styles and colours of clothing which adults choose to dress baby boys and baby girls in (Shakin, Shakin & Sternglanz, 1985^[9]; Block, 1983^[10]; Bell & Carver, 1980^[11]). Other studies have shown that gender stereotypes can be perpetuated more blatantly, for example, through children’s literature (Centre for Literacy in Primary Education, 2018^[12]; Caldwell & Wilbraham, 2018^[13]; Blumberg, 2014^[14]) and through television programmes, films, and advertising (Fine, 2010^[15]; Jhally, 2010^[16]; Götz, 2008^[17]).

Thus, Fine (2010) believes that children are 

…born into a world in which gender is continually emphasised through conventions of dress, appearance, language, colour, segregation, and symbols. Everything around the child indicates that whether one is male, or female, is a matter of great importance (p. 212^[18])

and Joel and Vikhanski (2019) note that 

…the differences in how we treat girls and boys are typically small, but coming from many people over one’s lifetime, they end up harming both sexes. By placing kids in emotional straitjackets of gender, we raise power-disabled girls and emotion-disabled boys (p.1268^[19]).

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^[1] Ofcom (2020). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacy- research/childrens/children-and-parents-media-use-and-attitudes-report-2021 

^[2] Joel, D., & Vikhanski, L. (2019). Gender mosaic: Beyond the myth of the male and female brain. Hachette Book Group. 

^[3] Wong, Y.J., Ringo Ho, M-H., Wang, S.Y., & Keino Miller, I.S. (2017). Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health- related outcomes. Journal of counselling psychology, 64(1), 80-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000176 

^[4] Eccles, J., & Fredericks, J. (2005). Family socialisation, gender and sport motivation and involvement. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(1), https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.27.1.3

^[5] Gonzalez, A. Q., & Koestner, R. (2005). Parental preference for sex of newborn as reflected in positive affect in birth announcements. Sex Roles, 52(5/6), 407– 411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-2683-4 

^[6] Lindsey, E.W., & Mize, J. (2000). Parent-child physical and pretence play: Links to children’s social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(4), 565-591. https://doi.org/10.1037/t58344-000 

^[7] Lieberson, S., & Bell, E.O. (1992). Children’s first names: An empirical study of social taste. American Journal of Sociology, 98(3), 511-554. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/230048 

^[8] Rubin, K.H., Provenzano, F.J., & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parent’s views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44(4), 512- 519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1974.tb00905.x 

^[9] Shakin, M., Shakin, D., & Sternglanz, S.H. (1985). Infant clothing; Sex labelling for strangers. Sex Roles, 12(9-10), 955-964. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288097 

^[10] Block, J.H. (1983). Differential premises arising from differential socialisation of the sexes: some conjectures. Child Development, 54(6), 1335-1354. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6661940

^[11] Bell, N.J., & Carver, W. (1980). A re-evaluation of gender label effects: Expectant mothers’ responses to infants. Child Development, 51(3), 925-927. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129489 

^[12] Centre for Literacy in Primary Education (CLPE) (2019). Reflecting realities. Survey of ethnic representation within UK children’s Literature 2019. 

https://clpe.org.uk/research/clpe-reflecting-realities-survey-ethnic- representation-within-uk-childrens-literature 

^[13] Caldwell, E.F., & Wilbraham, S. (2018). Hairdressing in space: depiction of gender in science books for children. Journal of Science and Popular Culture. https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/127796/1/Hairdressing_FINAL_23_6_17_ clean_for_repos.pdf 

^[14] Blumberg, R.L. (2014). Eliminating gender bias in textbooks: Pushing for policy reforms that promote gender equity in education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232452 

^[15] Fine, C. (2010). Delusions of gender. Icon Books Ltd. 

^[16] Jhally, S. (2010). The codes of gender. Media Education Foundation. https://bit.tube/play?hash=QmZ7fbHEHayAE264eQ13jSm4LpU4JwZJZeHx gUXQDm71CM&channel=185843 

^[17] Götz, M. (2008). Girls and boys and television: A few reminders for more gender sensitivity in children’s TV. Germany: International Central Institute for Youth and Educational Television (IZI). Retrieved from https://www.br- online.de/jugend/izi/deutsch/forschung/gender/IZI_guidelines_WEB.pdf 

^[18] Fine, C. (2010). Delusions of gender. Icon Books Ltd.

^[19] Joel, D., & Vikhanski, L. (2019). Gender mosaic: Beyond the myth of the male and female brain. Hachette Book Group.

Studies have shown that children’s perceptions about ‘gender’ and what boys and girls should or should not do, can affect subject choice in later aspects of education. For example, with regards to Maths (Tiedemann, 2000^[1]; Yee & Eccles 1998^[2]; Jacobs & Eccles, 1992^[3]) with regards to Science (Curran & Kellogg, 2016^[4]; Morgan et al., 2016^[5]) and with regards to future overall career aspirations (Wood, Hutchinson, Aitken & Cunningham, 2021^[6] Gunderson, Ramirez, Levine & Beilock, 2012^[7]). This has raised concerns about, for example, the numbers of young people choosing to study Science, Engineering, Technology and Mathematics (STEM) subjects at university and beyond (Davenport et al, 2021^[8]; Chambers et al., 2018^[9]; Bian et al., 2017^[10])

Studies have also shown that children’s perceptions about gender and what boys and girls should or should not do, can impact on the mental health of children and young people (Horn, 2018^[11]; Killerman, 2013^[12]) indeed in 2020, with the culmination of an 18-month process of evidence gathering and research on ‘gender stereotypes in early childhood’ the Fawcett Society (2020) stated that 

…gender expectations significantly limit children, causing problems such as lower self-esteem in girls and poorer reading skills in boys…[these] stereotypes contribute towards the mental health crisis among children and young people [and] are at the root of girls’ problems with body image and eating disorders, higher male suicide rates, and violence against women and girls (Fawcett Society, 2020, p.1^[13])

In 2021, a letter was written by the White Ribbon Charity to the then Secretary of State for Education (Gavin Williamson). In the letter they stated that 

…despite the best efforts of many educators, stereotyping is reinforced daily in the school environment. The curriculum, books, displays, language, and assumptions perpetuate notions of active men and passive women, of ‘strong’ boys who should stifle their emotions and ‘caring’; girls whose role is to please others.

Girls are aware from all too young of how their bodies are judged and valued. Boys, in turn, often feel pressure to define themselves as ‘men’ by conforming to outdated ideals of masculinity. These learnt dynamics lead to a range of unequal outcomes throughout life, fuelling male violence against women and girls, high rates of male suicide and limiting children’s aspirations along gender lines (White Ribbon, 2021, p.1^[14]) 

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^[1] Tiedemann, J. (2000). Gender-related beliefs of teachers in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 106, 41, 191-207. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1003953801526 

^[2] Yee, D.K., & Eccles, J.S. (1988). Parent perceptions and attributions for children’s math achievement. Sex Roles, 19, 317-333. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289840 

^[3] Jacobs, J.E., & Eccles, J.S. (1992). The impact of mothers’ gender-role stereotyped beliefs on mothers’ and childrens’ ability perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 932-944. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022- 3514.63.6.932 

^[4] Curran, F.C. & Kellogg, A.T. (2016). Understanding science achievement gaps by race/ethnicity and gender in kindergarten and first grade. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 273-282. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16656611 

^[5] Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M.M., & Maczuga, S. (2016). Science achievement gaps begin very early, persist and are largely explained by modifiable factors. Educational Researcher, 45(1), 18-35. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X6633182 

^[6] Wood, L.A., Hutchinson, J., Aitken, M., & Cunningham, S.J. (2021). Gender stereotypes in UK children and adolescents: changing patterns of knowledge and endorsement. British Journal of Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111.bjso.12510 

^[7] Gunderson, E., Ramirez, G., Levine, S., & Beilock, S. (2012). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3), 153-1166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2 

^[8] Davenport, C., Dele-Ajayi, O., Emembolu, I., Morton, R., Padwick, A., Portas, A., Sanderson, J., Shimwell, J., Stonehouse, J., Strachan, R., Wake, L., Wells, G., & Woodward, J. (2021). A theory of change for improving children’s perceptions, aspirations and uptake of STEM careers. Research in Science Education, 51. 997-1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-019-09909-6 

^[9] Chambers, N., Kashefpakdel, E.T., Rehill, J., & Percy, C. (2018). Drawing the future: Exploring the career aspirations of primary school children from around the world. Education and Employers. 

^[10] Bian, L., Leslie, S., & Cimpian, A. (2017) Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355(6323), 389-381. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524 

^[11] Horn, S. (2018). Sexual orientation and gender identity-based prejudice. Child Development Perspectives, 13(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12311 

^[12] Killerman, S. (2013). The social justice advocate’s handbook: A guide to gender. Impetus Books. 

^[13] Fawcett Society, (2020). Unlimited potential. Report of the commission on gender stereotypes in early childhood. https://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=17fb0c1 1-f904-469c-a62e-173583d441c8 

^[14] White Ribbon. (2021). Letter to the Secretary of State for Education. https://whiteribbon.org.uk/news/2021/6/2/2s6ey6ii4gqb6zahqk0lckte7cpx61

School staff have tremendous powers to manipulate the environment in their classrooms and schools, as their actions impact on children’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours (Rippon, 2021^[1]; Olsson & Martiny, 2018^[2]); and they create and reinforce the ethos in their classes through repeated expectations (Leinhardt, et al., 2014^[3]; Thorne, 1993^[4]). In 2021, Hamel (2021)^[5] carried out a literature review and concluded that there were five aspects demonstrated by staff, which have the potential to cause and/or perpetuate harmful gender stereotyping with children and young people. These were “teacher perception, curriculum, teacher interactions, gender identity [and] social standing” (p.271). 

From the review of literature which was carried out as part of a PhD study (Shaw, 2023^[6]) the assumptions were made that:

1. School staff have the power to manipulate the classroom environment for example, through the rules, rituals, and traditions they enforce within their classroom, such as lining up, seating arrangements and the expectations on how children move from one area of the school to another.

• Children will observe, listen, and react to, the actions of the school staff – be this consciously or unconsciously made. For example, the ways in which staff might treat boys and girls differently such as talking less to boys than girls, or telling girls off more harshly than boys even when they are demonstrating the same inappropriate behaviours. It could also be actions such as the gender labels which staff assign to attributes such as ‘strong boys’ and ‘pretty girls.’ 

• The resources used, and environments created by teachers impact on gender perceptions of children. For example, this could be through the spaces provided for activities to physically take place in, such as larger spaces for boys to take part in boisterous play but only smaller spaces for quieter activities for girls. Or it could be through the actual resources which are used – literature, films, worksheets – which inadvertently perpetuate gender stereotypes.

• The perceptions about gender which staff have, can mean that they treat boys and girls differently, albeit consciously or unconsciously. For example, when making assumptions about whether girls or boys are better at writing or STEM subjects; or how much time staff spend talking to / listening to boys or girls; or even the terms of endearment and language used when staff talk to either boys or girls. 

It can be seen therefore, that staff could easily be perpetuating gender stereotypes and adding to the concept of ‘gender boxes’ without even realising it.

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^[1] Rippon, G. (2021). A window of opportunity: a neuroscience perspective on the gender stereotyping of science in the early years. Research Review. JES20. https://www.ase.org.uk/system/files/Rippon.pdf 

^[2] Olsson, M., & Martiny, S.E. (2018). Does exposure to countersterotypical role models influence girl’s and women’s gender stereotypes and career choices? A review of social psychological research. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2264). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02264 

^[3] Leinhardt, G., Weidman, C., & Hammond, K.M. (2014). Introduction and integration of classroom routines by expert teachers. Curriculum Inquiry, 17(2). 135-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.1987.11075284 

^[4] Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school. Open University Press. 

^[5] Hamel, E. (2021). Science starts early: a literature review examining the influence of early childhood teachers’ perceptions of gender on teaching practices. Journal of Childhood, Education and Society, 2(3), 267-286. https://doi.org/10.37291/2717638X.202123118 

^[6] Shaw, R. (2023). Can a teacher challenge children’s perception of gender? (Unpublished PhD (prof) thesis) The University of Lincoln.

In 2021, Spinner et al., (2021)^[1] carried out a study to measure the effects of weekly “intensive school-based interventions” (p.444)which had been specifically designed to challenge gender stereotyping. Their study concluded that it was possible to challenge gender perceptions of children by carrying out such interventions. However, in their PhD study, Shaw (2023)^[2]noted that such interventions can be costly both in terms of time to carry out in what is already a busy curriculum, and in terms of cost in purchasing such material when school budgets are already stretched. The participating staff in Shaw’s (2023) study, challenged stereotypical gender perceptions in a variety of far subtler ways, which one could call ‘nudges’.

Shaw (2023) examined the concept of ‘nudge theory’ which was first created in 2008 (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008)^[3] in the fields of economics and business, to explain how groups of people’s behaviour can be modified and influenced in subtle ways. Nudge theory has been extended by other researchers (Damgaard & Nielson, 2018^[4]), including examining it’s use in early childhood (Park & Clemenson, 2020^[5]) and has also been modified by its original creators in 2021 (Thaler & Sunstein, 2021^[6]).  Thus, taking these versions of nudge theory into account, alongside the findings from their PhD studies and modifying ‘nudge theory’ to fit with the concept of ‘challenging gender perceptions in children’, Shaw (2023) created two overall areas of consideration if staff in schools wish to ‘nudge the gender box’ and ensure they are challenging gender perceptions in children. These are entitled “social interactions” and “environmental influences” (Shaw, 2023, p.223).

Social interactions

Staff in schools can ‘nudge the gender box’ by:

• ensuring that some physical groupings which they create, involves the use of mixed-sex participants as opposed to always using same-sex grouping.
• avoiding the unnecessary use of sex or gender as a means of segregating children. 
• avoiding the use of direct competition between boys and girls, particularly when this would involve stereotypical gender attributes, for example physical prowess, or skills in nurturing.
• dealing with appropriate and inappropriate behaviours equally and fairly, regardless of the biological sex or gender of the individual.
• ensuring they do not hold any gender stereotypical biases whereby they consider boys and girls to be different in terms of their emotional, behavioural, or academic needs and/or expectations, but rather see children as individuals. 
• interacting in similar ways with both boys and girls given the same circumstances – engaging both boys and girls in equal amounts of verbal and physical interactions and ensuring that these interactions are of a similar standard in terms of degrees of complexity.
• focussing on the diversity which can be found within a gender group – thus emphasising the similarities between boys and girls. 

(Shaw, 2023, p.225)

Environmental influences

Staff in schools can ‘nudge the gender box’ by:

• continually considering how to challenge gender stereotypes when planning all activities to take place in the classroom; for example, ensuring consideration has been given to not only the resources to be used, but also the physical environments which are created and utilised.
• recognising when there is the need for something to be challenged, such as when an    un-planned situation occurs.
• ensuring that no item, activity, or behaviour, unnecessarily receives a gender label, which could then create or perpetuate a stereotypical perception that something is, or is not, acceptable, achievable, or expected simply by being a boy, or being a girl.

(Shaw, 2023, p.226)

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^[1] Spinner, L., Tenenbaum, H.R., Cameron, L. & Wallinheimo, A. (2021). A school- based intervention to reduce gender-stereotyping. School Psychology International, 42(4), 422-449 https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343211009944 

^[2] Shaw, R. (2023). Can a teacher challenge children’s perception of gender? (Unpublished PhD (prof) thesis) The University of Lincoln.

^[3] Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C.R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. Penguin.

^[4] Damgaard, M.T., & Nielsen, H.S. (2018). Nudging in education. Economics of Education Review, 64(C). 313-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.008

^[5] Park, M., & Clemenson, C. (2020). Using nudge theory in early childhood classrooms. Childhood Education, 96(6), 22-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2020.1846375 

^[6] Thaler, R.H., & Sunstein, C.R. (2021). Nudge: The final edition. Penguin.

Staff who work in schools need to be aware of the harmful impacts that the perpetuation of gender stereotyping could have on children and young people; and that their actions whether consciously or unconsciously made, have an important part to play in this. It is important to remember that:

…children arrive in school with strong assumptions based on their day-to-day experience [and it is schools which] help them to discover their passions and aspirations, develop their potential and find their place in society (Chambers, et al., 2018, p.vii). ^[1]

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^[1] Chambers, N., Kashefpakdel, E.T., Rehill, J., & Percy, C. (2018). Drawing the future: Exploring the career aspirations of primary school children from around the world. Education and Employers. 

However, if one takes time to consider ‘gender stereotyping’ and consider their subsequent actions in terms of ‘social interactions’and ‘environmental influences’, staff who work in schools will be able to play their part to ‘nudge the gender box’ and allow children to be free to explore themselves and the world around them without potentially harmful stereotypical gender constraints.

I am the headteacher of a Junior School and have been involved in education since 1992 – teaching in Cyprus and Belgium, but predominantly in the UK. I have been a headteacher since 2009. During my career to date, I have participated in several international projects and have presented in the UK, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, Poland, the Netherlands, Guadeloupe, South Africa, and Germany, on a range of different subjects related to education. 

I completed my Educational Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Lincoln in the UK – entitled ‘Can a teacher challenge children’s perception of gender?’ (Shaw, R. 2023^[1]). Centred around two research questions, the first being split into two parts, the study attempted to answer:

1. Do children have gender perceptions?
   1. How are they constructed, and do they conform to stereotype? 

• To what extent can teacher intervention help to challenge children’s gender-stereotypical perceptions?

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^[1] Shaw, R. (2023). Can a teacher challenge children’s perception of gender? (Unpublished PhD (prof) thesis) The University of Lincoln.

The study uses

a mixed methods approach, to observe 6 teachers and to discover the gender perceptions of 280 children in relation to a list of jobs. It then details discussions with 48 children in 16 focus groups, and 7 teachers in interviews prior to, and following, interventions that they engaged in, as the teachers endeavour to challenge gender perceptions as they see fit, during the 2020-2021 academic year. The study concludes that children have gender perceptions which often conform to stereotype and are constructed from experience and beliefs about societal expectations. The study also concludes that these perceptions about gender can be challenged by the interventions of a teacher, and advocates for the use of ‘nudge theory’ (Thaler & Sunstein, 2021^[1]; Park & Clemenson, 2020^[2]; Damgaard & Nielson, 2018^[3]) as being a successful way for teachers to do so.

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^[1] Thaler, R.H., & Sunstein, C.R. (2021). Nudge: The final edition. Penguin.

^[2] Park, M., & Clemenson, C. (2020). Using nudge theory in early childhood classrooms. Childhood Education, 96(6), 22-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2020.1846375 

^[3] Damgaard, M.T., & Nielsen, H.S. (2018). Nudging in education. Economics of Education Review, 64(C). 313-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.008

The uniqueness of the PhD study is in the creation of the two categories of ‘nudges’ which staff in schools could consider, if attempting to challenge gender perceptions in children: namely ‘social interactions’ and ‘environmental influences’.

I have created this blog to disseminate some of the information from my study, in the hope that you, the reader, can be motivated to realise how important it is for school staff to challenge the gender perceptions of children, and be inspired to realise that even the smallest of actions from yourself can have a huge, and much-needed, positive impact on children for their current and future wellbeing, self-esteem and aspirations.

You are most welcome to contact me to share the actions you subsequently take as a result of reading about ‘Nudge the gender box’, or to discuss questions you may have, or to find out more information about the actual PhD study. 

Email: rachael.shaw@mpshaw.net

Twitter/X: @RESED03 

I am a headteacher who has recently completed a PhD (prof) [2023] – interested in:

• how children’s gender stereotypical perceptions can be harmful to their future aspirations and to their mental health; and
• how teachers can effectively challenge these ‘gender boxes’.

I have created a concept which can be easily understood and actioned by staff who work in schools.